Resident population
1,176,960
Mid-year estimate · 2025
England · E08000025
Driving in Birmingham.
Understand the people and transport context around you, then plan the questions to ask about lessons, private practice or your teaching business.
Search public transport stops and stations by this area name . Council names and transport localities can differ; try a town or street if needed.
Residents aged 17–24
163,004
Sum of published single-year ages · 2025
Households without a car or van
31.7%
Census 2021 · 134,123 households
Context for planning, not a demand forecast.
Residents aged 17–24 are not necessarily learners. Adults learn at many ages. A household vehicle may not be suitable, available or insured for private practice. A provider business address does not establish pickup coverage.
Age detail
View every published age group
| Age | Residents |
|---|---|
| Age 16 | 16,778 |
| Age 17 | 16,693 |
| Age 18 | 17,297 |
| Age 19 | 21,861 |
| Age 20 | 22,703 |
| Age 21 | 23,146 |
| Age 22 | 22,162 |
| Age 23 | 20,381 |
| Age 24 | 18,761 |
Household vehicle availability
View household vehicle categories
| Category | Households |
|---|---|
| Total: All households | 423,456 |
| No cars or vans in household | 134,123 |
| 1 car or van in household | 176,325 |
| 2 cars or vans in household | 86,325 |
| 3 or more cars or vans in household | 26,683 |
Census counts use statistical disclosure control. Categories and dates remain source-specific.
Languages, accessibility and journeys to work
Census 2021 gives a historical picture of Birmingham. These figures can help you plan the support and practical questions to discuss with an instructor.
Residents reporting a disability
17.3%
Census definition; not driving fitness.
Employed residents commuting as car/van drivers
45.9%
Census 2021, during coronavirus restrictions.
Main languages
Main language is not the same as every language a person speaks. Parent categories overlap their detailed subcategories; do not add them together.
Most frequently reported main languages
English (English or Welsh in Wales): 929,445 · Urdu: 25,131 · Panjabi: 17,765 · Bengali (with Sylheti and Chatgaya): 13,903 · Arabic: 12,758 · Romanian: 10,573 · Pakistani Pahari (with Mirpuri and Potwari): 9,446 · Polish: 7,907
Detailed categories only; group subtotals are excluded from this selection. Check an instructor’s own language information before contacting them.
View all 106 source categories
| Category | People | Share of table population |
|---|---|---|
| Total: All usual residents aged 3 years and over (total or subtotal) | 1,100,905 | 100.0% |
| English (English or Welsh in Wales) | 929,445 | 84.4% |
| Welsh or Cymraeg (in England only) | 146 | 0.0% |
| Other UK language (total or subtotal) | 102 | 0.0% |
| Other UK language: Gaelic (Irish) | 15 | 0.0% |
| Other UK language: Gaelic (Scottish) | 2 | 0.0% |
| Other UK language: Manx Gaelic | 0 | 0.0% |
| Other UK language: Gaelic (Not otherwise specified) | 1 | 0.0% |
| Other UK language: Cornish | 1 | 0.0% |
| Other UK language: Scots | 3 | 0.0% |
| Other UK language: Ulster Scots | 0 | 0.0% |
| Other UK language: Romany English | 77 | 0.0% |
| Other UK language: Irish Traveller Cant | 3 | 0.0% |
| French | 2,737 | 0.2% |
| Portuguese | 2,803 | 0.3% |
| Spanish | 2,994 | 0.3% |
| Other European language (EU) (total or subtotal) | 29,378 | 2.7% |
| Other European language (EU): Italian | 2,797 | 0.3% |
| Other European language (EU): German | 663 | 0.1% |
| Other European language (EU): Polish | 7,907 | 0.7% |
| Other European language (EU): Slovak | 762 | 0.1% |
| Other European language (EU): Czech | 612 | 0.1% |
| Other European language (EU): Romanian | 10,573 | 1.0% |
| Other European language (EU): Lithuanian | 891 | 0.1% |
| Other European language (EU): Latvian | 527 | 0.0% |
| Other European language (EU): Hungarian | 855 | 0.1% |
| Other European language (EU): Bulgarian | 1,164 | 0.1% |
| Other European language (EU): Greek | 1,534 | 0.1% |
| Other European language (EU): Dutch | 542 | 0.0% |
| Other European language (EU): Swedish | 259 | 0.0% |
| Other European language (EU): Danish | 67 | 0.0% |
| Other European language (EU): Finnish | 41 | 0.0% |
| Other European language (EU): Estonian | 49 | 0.0% |
| Other European language (EU): Slovenian | 33 | 0.0% |
| Other European language (EU): Maltese | 12 | 0.0% |
| Other European language (EU): Any other European language (EU) | 90 | 0.0% |
| Other European language (non EU) (total or subtotal) | 1,263 | 0.1% |
| Other European language (non EU): Albanian | 977 | 0.1% |
| Other European language (non EU): Ukrainian | 78 | 0.0% |
| Other European language (non EU): Any other Eastern European language (non EU) | 6 | 0.0% |
| Other European language (non EU): Northern European language (non EU) | 202 | 0.0% |
| Other European language (EU and non-EU) (total or subtotal) | 415 | 0.0% |
| Other European language (EU and non-EU): Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian, and Montenegrin | 415 | 0.0% |
| Other European language (non-national) (total or subtotal) | 7 | 0.0% |
| Other European language (non-national): Any Romani language | 6 | 0.0% |
| Other European language (non-national): Yiddish | 1 | 0.0% |
| Russian | 1,204 | 0.1% |
| Turkish | 588 | 0.1% |
| Arabic | 12,758 | 1.2% |
| West or Central Asian language (total or subtotal) | 14,600 | 1.3% |
| West or Central Asian language: Hebrew | 24 | 0.0% |
| West or Central Asian language: Kurdish | 3,271 | 0.3% |
| West or Central Asian language: Persian or Farsi | 4,143 | 0.4% |
| West or Central Asian language: Pashto | 6,993 | 0.6% |
| West or Central Asian language: Any other West or Central Asian language | 169 | 0.0% |
| South Asian language (total or subtotal) | 77,242 | 7.0% |
| South Asian language: Urdu | 25,131 | 2.3% |
| South Asian language: Hindi | 1,475 | 0.1% |
| South Asian language: Panjabi | 17,765 | 1.6% |
| South Asian language: Pakistani Pahari (with Mirpuri and Potwari) | 9,446 | 0.9% |
| South Asian language: Bengali (with Sylheti and Chatgaya) | 13,903 | 1.3% |
| South Asian language: Gujarati | 3,345 | 0.3% |
| South Asian language: Marathi | 186 | 0.0% |
| South Asian language: Telugu | 627 | 0.1% |
| South Asian language: Tamil | 1,541 | 0.1% |
| South Asian language: Malayalam | 1,156 | 0.1% |
| South Asian language: Sinhala | 231 | 0.0% |
| South Asian language: Nepalese | 439 | 0.0% |
| South Asian language: Any other South Asian language | 1,997 | 0.2% |
| East Asian language (total or subtotal) | 9,556 | 0.9% |
| East Asian language: Mandarin Chinese | 1,017 | 0.1% |
| East Asian language: Cantonese Chinese | 1,729 | 0.2% |
| East Asian language: All other Chinese | 4,063 | 0.4% |
| East Asian language: Japanese | 135 | 0.0% |
| East Asian language: Korean | 312 | 0.0% |
| East Asian language: Vietnamese | 940 | 0.1% |
| East Asian language: Thai | 266 | 0.0% |
| East Asian language: Malay | 213 | 0.0% |
| East Asian language: Tagalog or Filipino | 787 | 0.1% |
| East Asian language: Any other East Asian language | 94 | 0.0% |
| Oceanic or Australian language | 5 | 0.0% |
| North or South American language | 0 | 0.0% |
| Caribbean Creole (total or subtotal) | 29 | 0.0% |
| Caribbean Creole: English-based Caribbean Creole | 9 | 0.0% |
| Caribbean Creole: Any other Caribbean Creole | 20 | 0.0% |
| African language (total or subtotal) | 14,496 | 1.3% |
| African language: Amharic | 757 | 0.1% |
| African language: Tigrinya | 2,858 | 0.3% |
| African language: Somali | 7,374 | 0.7% |
| African language: Krio | 18 | 0.0% |
| African language: Akan | 394 | 0.0% |
| African language: Yoruba | 163 | 0.0% |
| African language: Igbo | 260 | 0.0% |
| African language: Swahili or Kiswahili | 277 | 0.0% |
| African language: Luganda | 31 | 0.0% |
| African language: Lingala | 221 | 0.0% |
| African language: Shona | 347 | 0.0% |
| African language: Afrikaans | 58 | 0.0% |
| African language: Any other Nigerian language | 256 | 0.0% |
| African language: Any other West African language | 850 | 0.1% |
| African language: Any other African language | 632 | 0.1% |
| Sign language (total or subtotal) | 849 | 0.1% |
| Sign language: British Sign Language | 691 | 0.1% |
| Sign language: Any other sign language | 79 | 0.0% |
| Sign language: Any sign communication system | 79 | 0.0% |
| Other language | 288 | 0.0% |
Original TS024 definitions and data . Contains ONS data © Crown copyright; Open Government Licence v3.0. Statistical disclosure control means some subtotals differ.
English proficiency
The English or Welsh main-language group in Wales is defined differently from England. Local language counts do not establish an instructor's teaching languages.
View all 7 source categories
| Category | People | Share of table population |
|---|---|---|
| Total: All usual residents aged 3 years and over (total or subtotal) | 1,100,907 | 100.0% |
| Main language is English (English or Welsh in Wales) | 929,445 | 84.4% |
| Main language is not English (English or Welsh in Wales) (total or subtotal) | 171,462 | 15.6% |
| Main language is not English (English or Welsh in Wales): Can speak English very well | 57,964 | 5.3% |
| Main language is not English (English or Welsh in Wales): Can speak English well | 62,499 | 5.7% |
| Main language is not English (English or Welsh in Wales): Cannot speak English well | 42,140 | 3.8% |
| Main language is not English (English or Welsh in Wales): Cannot speak English | 8,859 | 0.8% |
Original TS029 definitions and data . Contains ONS data © Crown copyright; Open Government Licence v3.0. Statistical disclosure control means some subtotals differ.
Disability and everyday activities
Self-reported census disability is not a driving assessment or evidence of a need for vehicle adaptations. Parent categories overlap their subcategories.
View all 7 source categories
| Category | People | Share of table population |
|---|---|---|
| Total: All usual residents (total or subtotal) | 1,144,919 | 100.0% |
| Disabled under the Equality Act (total or subtotal) | 198,064 | 17.3% |
| Disabled under the Equality Act: Day-to-day activities limited a lot | 92,328 | 8.1% |
| Disabled under the Equality Act: Day-to-day activities limited a little | 105,736 | 9.2% |
| Not disabled under the Equality Act (total or subtotal) | 946,855 | 82.7% |
| Not disabled under the Equality Act: Has long term physical or mental health condition but day-to-day activities are not limited | 58,707 | 5.1% |
| Not disabled under the Equality Act: No long term physical or mental health conditions | 888,148 | 77.6% |
Original TS038 definitions and data . Contains ONS data © Crown copyright; Open Government Licence v3.0. Statistical disclosure control means some subtotals differ.
Travel to work
Census Day was 21 March 2021, during coronavirus restrictions. These are historical commuting patterns, not present-day traffic or a forecast of learner demand.
View all 12 source categories
| Category | People | Share of table population |
|---|---|---|
| Total: All usual residents aged 16 years and over in employment the week before the census (total or subtotal) | 442,418 | 100.0% |
| Work mainly at or from home | 114,058 | 25.8% |
| Underground, metro, light rail, tram | 977 | 0.2% |
| Train | 9,220 | 2.1% |
| Bus, minibus or coach | 43,123 | 9.7% |
| Taxi | 6,673 | 1.5% |
| Motorcycle, scooter or moped | 1,118 | 0.3% |
| Driving a car or van | 202,963 | 45.9% |
| Passenger in a car or van | 21,557 | 4.9% |
| Bicycle | 5,741 | 1.3% |
| On foot | 31,483 | 7.1% |
| Other method of travel to work | 5,505 | 1.2% |
Original TS061 definitions and data . Contains ONS data © Crown copyright; Open Government Licence v3.0. Statistical disclosure control means some subtotals differ.
Blue Badge and accessible travel context
Official figures for Birmingham, England. Badge counts describe the scheme locally; they do not tell you how many people drive or need lessons.
Valid badges held
53,500
At 31 March 2025
Badges issued
21,000
Year ending March 2025
Badge holders as a share of population
4.5%
Published population measure · DIS0105
Counts include badges for organisations and individuals and are rounded. A Blue Badge can be used by an eligible passenger as well as a driver. Eligibility and driving fitness are separate decisions.
See the original local categories and units
| Source measure | Published value |
|---|---|
| Number of valid Blue Badges held at 31 March (thousands) [note 2] | 54 |
| Badge holders as a percentage of the population | 4.5 |
| Total population (thousands) | 1,184 |
| Valid Blue Badges held without further assessment (thousands) [note 1] [note 3] | 26 |
| Population eligible for a Blue Badge without further assessment (thousands) [note 4] | 84 |
| Percentage of those eligible for a Blue Badge without further assessment who hold one | 31 |
| Source measure | Published value |
|---|---|
| Valid Blue Badges held without further assessment [note 2] | 26,000 |
| Of which on Higher Rate Mobility DLA / Moving around PIP / Journey planning PIP [note 3] | 24,700 |
| Other category [note 4] | 1,300 |
| Valid Blue Badges held subject to further assessment [note 5] | 27,100 |
| Valid Blue Badges held by organisations | 380 |
| Total valid Blue Badges held by organisations and individuals | 53,500 |
| Source measure | Published value |
|---|---|
| Valid Blue Badges issued without further assessment [note 2] | 10,000 |
| Of which on Higher Rate Mobility DLA / Moving around PIP / Journey planning PIP [note 3] | 9,600 |
| Other category [note 4] | 500 |
| Valid Blue Badges issued subject to further assessment [note 5] | 10,800 |
| Valid Blue Badges issued to organisations | 130 |
| Total valid Blue Badges issued to organisations and individuals | 21,000 |
Explore accessible travel statistics and source notes
Check the official Blue Badge application service
Assessment and adapted driving
Source: Department for Transport DIS0105 and DIS0108 , published 19 March 2026. Open Government Licence v3.0.
Instructor business and affordability context
Registered driving-school enterprises
45
SIC 85530 · 2026 · rounded to the nearest five
These are VAT/PAYE registered enterprises based at an address in this area. Many small sole traders are excluded; one enterprise can employ several instructors. This industry classification also includes some flying schools. Use it alongside actual provider information when researching a teaching business.
ONS UK Business Counts through Nomis . A published zero can be rounded; it does not mean there are no instructors.
English deprivation summaries · 2025
These figures describe relative deprivation in areas. They do not tell you whether an individual can afford lessons or qualifies for support. Lower-tier and upper-tier summaries use different comparison groups. Explore the original measures below; ranks cannot be compared with another UK nation’s index.
District and unitary authority summary · 2024 boundaries
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| IMD - Average rank | 25,089.35 |
| IMD - Rank of average rank | 8 |
| IMD - Average score | 38.115 |
| IMD - Rank of average score | 5 |
| IMD - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.4279 |
| IMD - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 2 |
| IMD25 - Extent | 0.5596 |
| IMD25 - Rank of extent | 4 |
| IMD25 - Local concentration | 33,268.15 |
| IMD25 - Rank of local concentration | 23 |
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| Income - Average rank | 25,469.55 |
| Income - Rank of average rank | 7 |
| Income - Average score | 0.417 |
| Income - Rank of average score | 1 |
| Income - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.4476 |
| Income - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 2 |
| Income scale | 481,158 |
| Rank of Income Scale | 1 |
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| Employment - Average rank | 24,723.37 |
| Employment - Rank of average rank | 9 |
| Employment - Average score | 0.214 |
| Employment - Rank of average score | 8 |
| Employment - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.4112 |
| Employment - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 6 |
| Employment scale | 156,514.5 |
| Rank of Employment Scale | 1 |
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| Education, Skills and Training - Average rank | 22,991.3 |
| Education, Skills and Training - Rank of average rank | 30 |
| Education, Skills and Training - Average score | 34.448 |
| Education, Skills and Training - Rank of average score | 23 |
| Education, Skills and Training - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.2898 |
| Education, Skills and Training - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 15 |
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| Health Deprivation and Disability - Average rank | 25,333.17 |
| Health Deprivation and Disability - Rank of average rank | 23 |
| Health Deprivation and Disability - Average score | 0.72 |
| Health Deprivation and Disability - Rank of average score | 30 |
| Health Deprivation and Disability - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.2564 |
| Health Deprivation and Disability - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 32 |
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| Crime - Average rank | 23,735.33 |
| Crime - Rank of average rank | 18 |
| Crime - Average score | 0.551 |
| Crime - Rank of average score | 22 |
| Crime - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.2094 |
| Crime - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 35 |
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| Barriers to Housing and Services - Average rank | 17,655.82 |
| Barriers to Housing and Services - Rank of average rank | 141 |
| Barriers to Housing and Services - Average score | 21.68 |
| Barriers to Housing and Services - Rank of average score | 143 |
| Barriers to Housing and Services - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.0319 |
| Barriers to Housing and Services - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 171 |
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| Living Environment - Average rank | 22,990.2 |
| Living Environment - Rank of average rank | 31 |
| Living Environment - Average score | 31.241 |
| Living Environment - Rank of average score | 34 |
| Living Environment - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.1866 |
| Living Environment - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 42 |
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| IDACI - Average rank | 27,051.44 |
| IDACI - Rank of average rank | 4 |
| IDACI - Average score | 0.617 |
| IDACI - Rank of average score | 3 |
| IDACI - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.4583 |
| IDACI - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 2 |
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| IDAOPI - Average rank | 21,797.06 |
| IDAOPI - Rank of average rank | 27 |
| IDAOPI - Average score | 0.293 |
| IDAOPI - Rank of average score | 23 |
| IDAOPI - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.3035 |
| IDAOPI - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 15 |
County and unitary authority summary · 2024 boundaries
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| IMD - Average rank | 25,089.35 |
| IMD - Rank of average rank | 6 |
| IMD - Average score | 38.115 |
| IMD - Rank of average score | 4 |
| IMD - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.4279 |
| IMD - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 2 |
| IMD25 - Extent | 0.5596 |
| IMD25 - Rank of extent | 4 |
| IMD25 - Local concentration | 33,268.15 |
| IMD25 - Rank of local concentration | 18 |
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| Income - Average rank | 25,469.55 |
| Income - Rank of average rank | 7 |
| Income - Average score | 0.417 |
| Income - Rank of average score | 1 |
| Income - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.4476 |
| Income - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 2 |
| Income scale | 481,158 |
| Rank of Income Scale | 1 |
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| Employment - Average rank | 24,723.37 |
| Employment - Rank of average rank | 7 |
| Employment - Average score | 0.214 |
| Employment - Rank of average score | 7 |
| Employment - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.4112 |
| Employment - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 6 |
| Employment scale | 156,514.5 |
| Rank of Employment Scale | 1 |
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| Education, Skills and Training - Average rank | 22,991.3 |
| Education, Skills and Training - Rank of average rank | 16 |
| Education, Skills and Training - Average score | 34.448 |
| Education, Skills and Training - Rank of average score | 14 |
| Education, Skills and Training - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.2898 |
| Education, Skills and Training - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 11 |
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| Health Deprivation and Disability - Average rank | 25,333.17 |
| Health Deprivation and Disability - Rank of average rank | 19 |
| Health Deprivation and Disability - Average score | 0.72 |
| Health Deprivation and Disability - Rank of average score | 24 |
| Health Deprivation and Disability - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.2564 |
| Health Deprivation and Disability - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 28 |
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| Crime - Average rank | 23,735.33 |
| Crime - Rank of average rank | 15 |
| Crime - Average score | 0.551 |
| Crime - Rank of average score | 16 |
| Crime - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.2094 |
| Crime - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 30 |
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| Barriers to Housing and Services - Average rank | 17,655.82 |
| Barriers to Housing and Services - Rank of average rank | 71 |
| Barriers to Housing and Services - Average score | 21.68 |
| Barriers to Housing and Services - Rank of average score | 70 |
| Barriers to Housing and Services - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.0319 |
| Barriers to Housing and Services - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 79 |
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| Living Environment - Average rank | 22,990.2 |
| Living Environment - Rank of average rank | 26 |
| Living Environment - Average score | 31.241 |
| Living Environment - Rank of average score | 28 |
| Living Environment - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.1866 |
| Living Environment - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 27 |
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| IDACI - Average rank | 27,051.44 |
| IDACI - Rank of average rank | 4 |
| IDACI - Average score | 0.617 |
| IDACI - Rank of average score | 3 |
| IDACI - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.4583 |
| IDACI - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 2 |
| Published measure | Value |
|---|---|
| IDAOPI - Average rank | 21,797.06 |
| IDAOPI - Rank of average rank | 27 |
| IDAOPI - Average score | 0.293 |
| IDAOPI - Rank of average score | 23 |
| IDAOPI - Proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 0.3035 |
| IDAOPI - Rank of proportion of LSOAs in most deprived 10% nationally | 15 |
Corrected November 2025 v2 workbooks. Original labels and units are retained: proportions run from 0 to 1, and index scores are not percentages. Source and methodology .
Download registered enterprise counts and all imported deprivation domains · Open Government Licence v3.0. Different source periods remain separate.
Traffic and road safety
Annual traffic and reported injury collisions on the same official authority code.
Funding and support
Check the conditions attached to assistance with driving costs.
Instructor business context
Explore what respondents reported about workload, pupils and professional development.
Sources and geography
Population: ONS estimates through Nomis. Vehicle availability: ONS Census 2021 through Nomis. Population and census years are different. Nomis geography groups: county / unitary; district / unitary. Joins use the exact official area code, not a similarity in names. Counties and districts can overlap. Download counts, status flags and input checksums.